Hooping, Hopping and Hoping: 2014

Spread of Basketball in China and the Rise of the NBA

Little Flying Warrior, Little Emperor and King of the Wolves are three of the most famous icons in China. Although they may sound like Chinese emperors they are the Chinese nicknames of National Basketball Association (NBA) stars Kobe Bryant, Lebron James and Kevin Garnett. American-invented basketball has recently overtaken soccer to become the most popular sport in China, one of the most culturally different nations from that of the game’s origin. In 2006, Hu Jiashi, Vice President of the China Basketball Association, estimated that an astounding 300 to 400 million fans either play or watch basketball regularly (MacLeod, 2006). China has become the second largest market for the NBA and David Stern, the commissioner of the NBA (2009), has recently announced a plan for the start of NBA China. How has basketball become the national sport of China?

Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith in an effort to find a sport for young Christians during the cold winter months. Naismith invented a sport that could be played indoors in a relatively small space and demanded a dynamic athlete with strength and skill. Although under dispute, basketball legend states that the first “true basketball game” was played with a soccer ball and two peach baskets in a small gym in Springfield, Massachusetts. Soon after, the game was introduced in China during the Qing Dynasty (Polumbaum, 2002). David Stern was recently quoted in an interview with NBC about his new business venture in China, “I think they think they invented it. (China’s Passion, 2009)” Although they may not have invented it, they have been playing basketball for over a century.

By 1895, YMCAs were set up in China and the idea of basketball caught on quickly (Polumbaum). James Naismith led a “crusade” spreading the works of the Bible and creating YMCAs across the world to spread basketball. In an effort to spread American ideas, as Americans have done throughout it’s young history, the idea of basketball spread successfully to China.

Throughout the early 20th century, newly established Chinese YMCAs organized several national athletic competitions. Judy Poumbaum, (Standford, PhD 1989) an expert on China, reported “the basketball craze lent momentum to social reform and the cutting of Manchu-style braids, which could get in the way of a two-hand set shot (Coplon, 2003).” Basketball was changing more than just haircuts. All across the world, the idea of sports uniting countrymen and enemies was spreading. Sun Yiaxian, Chinese President, in 1915 was amazed at the ability of these national competitions to unite athletes from Canton, Shanhai and Peking. These were regions that normally feuded and were able to play together to compete for one China (Polumbaum).

Anti-American sentiment spread through China in the 1920s, which led to the YMCAs pulling back their efforts. By 1927, the YMCAs had lost their influence on athletic activities in China. This was a crucial year in Chinese history with the Civil War creating unrest throughout the country, which inevitably disrupted athletics, as well (Guttmann, 1994). Throughout history, during wartime the amount of available athletes decreases due to young men joining the army. This decreases the supply of labor and interferes with the ability of the organized sport to thrive. Basketball was introduced to the world at the Berlin Olympics in 1936 and China was able to send a team to the games. Although able to compete, the Chinese did not fair well and finished with a record of one win and three losses (1-3).

Throughout the middle of the 20th century, both nationalists and communists rejected many western ideas in an effort to decrease American influence. However, Basketball was not one of the western ideas rejected. Both sides actively embraced basketball and the Communists continued to do so after their triumph in 1949. The People’s Republic transformed the game into a “vehicle for revolutionary fitness, hard work and collectivism.” Basketball is a team game, which they viewed as egalitarian. Every player must be able to play the game fully. Everybody must be able to pass, dribble, play defense and shoot. All were expected to share the ball and work together to create the best shot (Coplon).

Basketball has been in China almost as long as it has been in America. However, there was not a professional league in China until 1995. Professional basketball leagues began in America in 1946 immediately after World War II when America and the rest of the world could start thinking about a civilized future again. Following the war, baseball and football returned to their pre-war status and continued to develop and spread throughout America. However, basketball had a very poor league in place before the war and investors throughout the country were able to reinvent the professional game. The origins of the NBA began after World War II, with a strong capitalist attitude and expanding middle class, the league developed loyal fans and grew into the great league it is today.

However in China, there were many impediments to the development of a professional league. The major barrier in the second half of the 20th century to setting up an official professional league in China was the communist government. Although the communists enjoyed the game of basketball, business restrictions did not allow businessmen to set up a professional league. The capitalist attitude and desire for the American dream took longer to catch on in China. Entrepreneurs were unable to build basketball courts throughout the country and there was not a high demand for a sports entertainment industry amongst the public. Additionally, there were not a large number of countrymen that had the time to play sports. Some of these factors could be attributed to a small middle class and the large discrepancy between the upper and middle class during the communist reign.

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Sports and athletes are treated very differently among the varying countries throughout the world. Within most countries there is a strong connection between the government and the development of athletes. This is most likely due to the national pride associated with winning the Olympics and other International Competitions. Winning a gold medal is not viewed as simply a personal accomplishment. When an athlete wins a gold medal they are representing their country. A country having a strong athletic performance in the Olympics is a high honor respected by the world. A strong athletic program is an indicator of that country’s physical prowess, training programs and education system. During the Cold War, sport was viewed by China’s communist leaders as a symbolic means of legitimizing their regime at home and abroad (Le Grand).

Prior to the nineties, sport in China, was completely government-funded, as it was in many countries. Nearly all top athletes quit at the height of their careers because they were uncertain about life post-retirement (Le Grand). This is a foreign concept for Americans today because American athletes today sign multi-millionaire dollar deals along with endorsement and advertisement options to guarantee financial stability for their entire life. Without this incentive, the opportunity cost of being an athlete in China is relatively higher. The next viable option for a career outside of basketball was more appealing in China than in America at this time. Therefore, the incentives did not influence great Chinese basketball players to keep on playing and developing their game. However, in America in the 1980s, marketing and advertising was booming and the desire to be an NBA player was high.

The 1984 Olympics games were a huge change in how sports were viewed and managed, especially in the business realm. Many experts view the marketing concepts learned from the 1984 Olympics as the start of the NBA’s explosive growth (Euchner). Basketball was already becoming a fan favorite game due to the dynamic style of play and strong personalities of the players. The NBA only needed to let the public know about the great game. The marketing scheme of the 1984 Olympics was drastically different from previous Olympics. The television rights of the Olympics were auctioned for 225 million, which was three times the fee of the last Olympics. Select corporations were offered three tiers of Olympic sponsorship, which yielded 127 million in revenues. Ticket prices were sold at a far higher ticket price, which led to six times the amount of revenue than the previous Olympics. The genius behind the Los Angeles Olympics was Peter Ueberroth. Ueberroth led the Olympics to an unprecedented 232 million dollar surplus (which he kindly gave to the youth sports program). The profits of the 1984 Olympics were very enticing (The 1976 Montreal Games lost 1 billion dollars) and many of the practices used in the 1984 Olympics were applied to the NBA (Euchner).

Interestingly, the practices were applied by an Ueberroth but this time it was Peter’s daughter, Heidi Ueberroth. Heidi, currently the President of Global marketing Partnerships and International Business Operations for the National Basketball Association, was just a college student at Vanderbilt when her father revolutionized the sports industry forever. Heidi Ueberroth followed in her father’s footsteps and has been a proponent of globalization and led the campaign with David Stern to spread the NBA throughout the world. She is responsible for directing the NBA’s business initiatives globally, including its top international market, China. She is in charge of the operations of the league’s 15 international offices (2009). Heidi played an important role towards making the NBA the influential force it is in the sports and business world (Executive Interview).

Michael Jordan

The NBA had their legendary players and ESPN classic games, but it was not the money making machine it currently is. Strong leadership, applying the ideas of globalization and a man by the name of Michael Jordan turned the NBA into an exciting entertainment industry and paved the way for the future of the NBA. Michael Jordan was able to take the torch from the Larry Bird-Magic Johnson deul that captivated the American Public throughout the 1980s.

The first true basketball icon of the information age was Michael Jordan who was drafted in this pivotal year of 1984. Jordan, with the help of Nike, became known world wide not only for his athletic ability but for his “winning personality and competitive zeal (Gunther).” The NBA is filled with some of most gifted athletes in the world, but Michael Jordan is the greatest of all time. The exciting style of play and personalities of the players have allowed the game to take over popular culture. The NBA is unique because the world’s best players all play in a single league. Unlike the world’s most popular sport, soccer, in which every country has their own league, the NBA is where all the best basketball players dream to play. Michael Jordan was the best player in arguably the greatest league in the world. The rise of Jordan accompanied with the trend toward globalization allowed the popularity of the game to increase throughout the world. Athletes were inspired throughout the world and everybody wanted to grow up to be “like Mike.” Technology allowed this idea to even spread to China.

Technology was evolving extremely rapidly as the 1990s approached. Before the Internet age, the information age was beginning. Transportation systems were improving. Airplanes and trains were reaching record speeds. The cost of technology was decreasing which allowed for a larger percent of the population to own the technology. This created a “tipping point” effect in which ideas began to be spread faster and faster leading into what experts believe as the earliest peak of the information age. The basic concept of Malcolm Gladwell’s Tipping Point is that small incremental changes in some variable inputs can have enormous, exponential effects on outputs.

Moore’s law states that every technology around us will be outdated within approximately a year and a half to two years. Moore’s law can be applied to the technologies used to spread the game of basketball throughout the world. Games used to only be read about in the newspaper. New technology allowed people to listen to the game on the radio. Black and white televisions allowed families to gather around to watch games. As time went on color televisions and HD Televisions were been developed for more affordable prices. The new televisions both enhanced the fan’s viewing experience and increased the amount of people watching the game. The NBA currently offers all of their games streaming broadband on its website. Now nearly all live sports games can be watched on the Internet throughout the entire world. NBA game programming is televised in over 214 countries in 41 languages (Exclusive Interview, ~2009). Technology has allowed the entire world to become apart of the NBA and the game of basketball.

Technology allowed for greater access, which allowed for globalization to take place. Heidi Ueberroth explains, “Today, there are very few businesses that are not considering growth in a global context. Few companies are limiting themselves to country borders, so it is natural that the sports industry would follow suit.” David Stern, recognized this opportunity ahead of other businessmen and focused his work on international expansion since entering the role as NBA commissioner in 1984 (the same year as the Los Angeles Olympics and year Michael Jordan was drafted).

David Stern recognized the possible profits in China but there were still many barriers preventing the spread of basketball in China. In 1997, Stern commented on the state of the NBA, “There are just so many seats in an arena and so many hours of television programming, period. The domestic business is becoming mature. That’s why we’re moving internationally (Gunther).” The ideas of a free market were being spread to China, allowing David Stern to expand his plans for the NBA. Stern had established a presence in China for years. In 1987, Stern persuaded China’s state television network, CCTV to air the NBA All-Star Game. Through the nineties, Stern and Ueberroth set up games throughout the world, including American and Chinese exhibition games (Exclusive Interview). Additionally, the popularity of Jordan made this campaign much easier. Marc Gunther explains that even with its own professional basketball league, “boys on the streets of Beijing and Shanghai wore Bulls gear because they want to be “like Mike”. A survey of 28,000 teenagers in 45 countries by a global advertising agency, found that Jordan was the world’s favorite athlete by far, finished well ahead of tennis player Andre Agassi, Olympic track star Carl Lewis and soccer great Diego Maradona. The popularity of Michael Jordan coupled with the leadership of Stern and Ueberroth allowed the NBA to spread.

Stern dealt with China a little differently than other countries. Stern saw huge potential for a future market in China. In the late 1990s, Stern worked out deals with countries throughout the world to sell TV rights to local broadcasters. He saw TV games being broadcasted as creating a fan base for tomorrow. Stern further explained the genius of his marketing, “Other brands have to buy their way on through advertising. Our core product is a two-hour commercial that someone pays us to run.” However, in a country like China where so many other NBA products were being sold, Stern gave away its TV programming. In 1997, nearly all of China’s 250 million TV households were able to watch NBA shows and at least one game week. Stern had a goal of winning the loyalty of 1.3 billion Chinese with his NBA invasion (Gunther).

The popularity of sports throughout the world led to many changes in the sporting industry in China. In 1993, soccer was the first sport to establish a fully professional league. Beijing issued a series of new regulations in 1994 that stated that “sports organizations are encouraged to raise money through sponsorships by business companies and individuals (Riordan).” Throughout the 1990s, Chinese business and specifically sports business were adopting the ideas of capitalism. Michael Jordan and the Dream Team, the dominant NBA players who controlled the international basketball scene from the late 1980s through the 90s, were known throughout the world.

Chinese National Coach, Zingquu Jiang told Don Nelson, future NBA basketball Coach, in 1994 that the popularity of the NBA has led to “more people [in China] who play basketball than the entire population in all of Europe (Araton)” The NBA finals were broadcasted for the first time live in China in 1994, millions of Chinese were glued to the televisions including Yao Ming who was 13 at the time (Coplon).

The popularity of the sport coupled with the success of the soccer league and the changes in government regulations allowed the Chinese Basketball Association (CBA) to be created in 1995. In 1998, the structure of sport in China was drastically altered further. The old sports commission controlled by the central government was disbanded and administrative power was given to the individual sports associations (Le Grand).

Although by no means comparable to the NBA, the China Basketball Association was a professional league that drew in fans and allowed basketball to become a profession. Since it’s beginning the CBA has been criticized for its poor play, weak officiating and lack of TV production (Thompson et al.). Basketball embraced the free market and established a fully professional, privately supported domestic competition.

However, as in many facets of Chinese society, the remnants of Mao’s rule can be seen even in the guidelines of the CBA. The CBA has never allowed more than two foreign players to be on a team. Additionally, the CBA limits the amount of playing time foreign players can get. This rule may be based on an attitude shared by many Chinese officials. This rule limits the influence the role foreigners could have on the CBA. This is a clear example of a lack of desire for globalization and “closed door” policy. China was making an effort not to allow foreigners to have an influence on their sport. Ironically, the government reform of the 90’s allowed for the NBA to globalize basketball and hit the large population of China directly.

Yao Ming

By the late 1990s, Stern put the NBA in a position to explode globally. Now all Stern needed was the Chinese Michael Jordan. Many people view the tipping point for China and basketball as being 7’ 5” Chinese basketball anomaly Yao Ming. Many prospects for the “next Jordan” came and went, but nobody has effected the globalization of the game more than Yao Ming. However, there were many Chinese basketball players before Yao that helped pave the way for him to play in the NBA.

In 1995, Ma Jian, one of the best Chinese basketball players at the time, tried out for the NBA without Beijing’s approval. Although he was cut by the Los Angeles Clippers, he came back to China with a goal. Ma Jian believed that China had to rethink their approach on basketball. He believed that the best basketball players of China should not be stuck in weak domestic leagues, but rather hone their skills in the West. With a strong globalization belief, Ma said, “By allowing the best people to go overseas, you’re training people who can then come back and use that knowledge to help develop younger players.” Ma was frustrated with the Chinese being embarrassed on the basketball scene and knew that he had to learn from the more dominant American style. Ma viewed Chinese basketball players as being oppressed and was determined to teach the basketball knowledge he gained in America to young Chinese basketball players. Ma was banned from the Olympics because of his antics (Beech).

Beijing had control over Yao Ming and Wang ZhiZhi, two of China’s greatest basketball players, and was reluctant to allow them to play in the NBA. Wang ZhiZhi, was selected by Don Nelson in the 1999 NBA draft, but his Army run team refused to release him (Lu, 2001). One Chinese-American agent said, “They see these Americans coming in to take away their best players and offering very little in return (Larmer, 2005)” In 2001, China sports authorities in a hope to gain the 2008 Olympic Bid granted Wang the right to join the Dallas Mavericks. Wang fell out of China’s graces when he refused to return home one summer. Wang had a controversy filled stint in the NBA and never proved much of himself. However, Yao a few years younger than Wang, was believed to be the greater of the two.

Yao repeatedly was unable to showcase his skills to the NBA. Domestic coaches and officials always held him back from playing with Americans (Lopez, 2002). Most reasons for this were unfounded and based on technicalities or the argument that he had to be prepared for upcoming international play.

Although it may seem like, “just another case of an old-style communist system that controls its athletes and keeps them behind closed doors,” a Chinese basketball player playing in the NBA is more than that (Larmer 2000). Beijing was a city dealing with change in a country facing the end of a communist regime and the beginning of a capitalistic culture. Beijing struggled to accept capitalistic freedoms without losing control of its people.

In one effort to stop Yao from gaining NBA exposure, they started the Olympic training schedule a week early to prevent Yao from participating in a Hoop Summit. Chinese officials said that their star was too exhausted to play in the States (Larmer, 2000). It was believed that if Yao played well at the United States exhibition he could be the first Asian Player in the NBA, being a lottery pick guaranteeing millions of dollars. This would be a huge upgrade compared to the $20,000 a year deal he made with the Shanghai Sharks when he was only 15. However, Chinese officials refused to allow him to showcase his skills.

After many battles between Yao, Yao’s agent the CBA and the NBA, Chinese officials came around and granted Yao the ability to play in the NBA in 2002. He was drafted with the 1st pick of the 2002 draft by the Houston Rockets. After this selection, the game of basketball grew even greater in China. Although Yao was not the first Chinese player in the NBA (Wang ZhiZhi and another center, Mengke Bateer, had short stints in the NBA), he was the first established Chinese basketball player in the NBA.

Yao was not only China’s hero, but he was also the NBA’s hero. After Michael Jordan retired, the NBA saw multiple years of decline. Stern’s promotions in China paid off with the addition of Yao into the NBA. Ming brought with him 1.3 billion loyal fans, just what Stern needed. Soon after Yao entered the NBA, the league opened its first mainland offices in Beijing, created a Chinese-language Website, and signed new television contracts, which doubled the amount of games broadcasted in China. Yao’s regular season games drew approximately 1 million American viewers and 30 million Chinese viewers making the Houston Rocket’s the world’s most watched team (Larmer, 2005). Stern and Ueberroth featured Yao in the NBA games that they brought to China in 2004. The world’s most dynamic, marketable league was now being played in the world’s fastest expanding market.

The capitalistic vision was already beginning to spread into China, when Yao was signed by the Houston Rockets. China gradually was moving away from their traditional isolationist move and was embracing their economic boom. Brook Larmer believes, “no individual symbolizes this cosmic convergence [of East and West] more than Yao Ming.” He views Yao as the “child of globalization” because “the two great forces of our time, China’s explosive rise and the expansion of transnational capitalism” shaped him. Yao is viewed as a patriotic icon who crushed the “diminutive” Chinese stereotype. Yao establishing himself in the world’s finest basketball league was a statement that China can compete against the best in the world.

It is undeniable that sport is a unique activity which bonds people and cultures together. Many argue that basketball and the NBA had an advantage over other sports leagues in taking advantage of global markets due to the nature of the game. Basketball is a simple game to understand and play. It requires no equipment other than a basketball hoop and a ball. Ueberroth explains, “It embodies attributes of fitness, teamwork and a healthy lifestyle. Basketball is played today in some of the most populated urban areas to the most remote rural communities.” Basketball appeals to all classes and all cultures and is a sport that has had the fortunate ability to spread throughout the world.

Works Cited

Araton, Harvey. "In China, It's Time for 10,000 Hoops to Bloom." New York Times 9 Aug. 1994: B17.

"Basketball in China: A Short History - Hoopedia." Main Page - Hoopedia. Apr. 2009 <http://hoopedia.nba.com/index.php?title=Basketball_in_China:_A_Short_History>.

"Basketball replaces football as Asia's top Sport." Agence France-Presse 30 Sept. 1997.

Beech, Hannah. "Just Can't Get A Good Outside Shot BASKETBALL STARS." TIME Asia 23 Oct. 2000.

"China's Passion For Basketball." Interview. Shanghaiist. 20 Apr. 2009. <http://shanghaiist.com/2009/04/21/david_stern_on_china_and_basketball.php>.

Coplon, Jeff. "The People's Game." The New York Times 23 Nov. 2003, Late ed.

Euchner, Charles. "Going glo-ball: with powerful global marketing, the NBA is pushing basketball past soccer as the most popular sport in the world-- and leaving football and baseball far behind." The American 1 Jan. 2008.

"Executive Interview: An Interview with Heidi Ueberroth, President, Global Marketing Partnerships and International Business Operations, National Basketball Association." Interview with Paul Swangard. International Journal of Sport Finance Nov. 2008: 185-88.

Gladwell, Malcol. Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. Back Bay Books, 2002.

Gunther, Marc. "They All Want to Be Like Mike." Fortune 21 July 1997: 51-53.

Guttman, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism. New York: Columbia UP, 1994.

Larmer, Brook. "Boxed Out by Beijing: Hoop dreams meet Chinese reality for a 7-foot-4 star. Will he ever get permission to play in the NBA?" Newsweek 10 Apr. 2000.

Larmer, Brook. "The Center of the World." Yale Global. 15 Sept. 2005. Yale. <yaleglobal.yale.edu>.

Le Grand, Chip. "China - Socialism and Sport - Children of the Revolution - 2000 Winners." 19 Aug. 2000. ProQuest. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

Lopez, John P. "Yao Negotiations Will Be Interesting." Houston Chronicle 23 May 2002.

Lu, Feng. "China Sends 1st Asian to NBA." China Daily 30 Mar. 2001.

MacLeod, Calum. "USATODAY.com - China embraces basketball." News, Travel, Weather, Entertainment, Sports, Technology, U.S. & World - USATODAY.com. 8 July 2006. <http://www.usatoday.com/sports/basketball/2006-08-07-china-focus_x.htm>.

Polumbaum, Judy. "From Evangelism to Entertainment: The YMCA, the NBA, and the Evolution of Chinese Basketball." Chinese Literature and Culutre 14 (2002): 178-230.

Riordan, James, and Robin E. Jones. Sport and Physical Education in China. New York: International Society for Comparative Physical Education and Sport Series.

Thompson, Adam, and Alan Paul. "NBA Uses Local Allure to Push Planned League in China." The Wall Street Journal (2008): B1. ProQuest. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. http://proquest.umi.com

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